Strong writing sits at the heart of learning in every classroom. But writing doesn’t just happen: it takes clear, focused teaching to help every pupil build the skills they need.
By modelling good writing, giving clear feedback and creating opportunities to practise, you can help every pupil find their voice and reach their potential. This article explores what makes writing complex and challenging, and helps you to reflect and act on ways to target your teaching where it matters most.
Recent trends reveal that fewer children and young people enjoy writing in their free time, with the decline most noticeable among younger pupils (National Literacy Trust, 2025). This highlights why writing deserves a central place in your school’s curriculum, giving every pupil the opportunity to develop these vital skills and discover the joy of writing.
Why writing is complex
For your pupils, writing is not only a powerful way to show what they know – it can boost wellbeing and spark creativity, helping pupils make sense of their experiences (Tan et al., 2021).
But writing can feel daunting. Organising thoughts on paper, finding a point of view and choosing just the right words to make meaning for the reader is no small feat. Add the challenge of grammar and spelling, and it’s easy to see why writing is one of the most complex skills pupils learn.
Understanding its different parts helps you support your pupils more effectively. It starts with two main elements: transcription and composition.
Transcription skills include spelling and handwriting. Your pupils need to form letters clearly, spell words accurately and write fluently. If they struggle with transcription, it’s hard for them to get their ideas across. Difficulties with spelling or handwriting can slow down their writing and distract them from what they want to say.
Composition covers vocabulary, grammar and punctuation. This is where your pupils choose the right words, build strong sentences and organise their ideas. Good composition means expressing thoughts clearly, structuring writing logically and using language effectively.
Both transcription and composition present their own challenges. The Department for Education’s writing framework explores these areas in depth, but it’s important to recognise just how demanding writing can be. By embracing this complexity and explaining it clearly, you give your pupils the tools to write with confidence – for all kinds of purposes and, just as importantly, for pleasure (Tan et al., 2021).
Carefully sequenced writing instruction helps pupils get to grips with how writing works, so they can put their thoughts and arguments into words that make sense. This approach gives them the best chance to master written language and share their stories and opinions effectively.
Reflection prompts:
- How does your school support the development of both transcription and composition skills?
- How do you spot when pupils are struggling with transcription, composition, or both?
Action steps:
- Allocate dedicated time for pupils to practise handwriting and spelling regularly, supporting fluent transcription skills.
- Review your curriculum to ensure structured teaching of both transcription and composition skills.
Why writing is challenging
Writing is challenging because it relies heavily on executive function and working memory (Kellogg, 1994; Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987). When pupils write, they must manage several tasks at once – planning, organising their thoughts, remembering grammar rules, and checking spelling and handwriting. For those still mastering transcription, these technical demands can use up so much mental energy that it becomes difficult to focus on expressing ideas.
The writing framework emphasises the Simple View of Writing. This is because it goes beyond focusing on transcription and composition, recognising that working memory and executive function also play a crucial role in helping pupils manage the complexities of writing (Berninger et al., 2002; EEF, 2021).
Motivation and executive function work together. When your pupils feel confident and motivated, they can focus, manage distractions and organise their thoughts more effectively (Bandura, 1997; MacArthur & Graham, 2016). If pupils feel anxious or uncertain, using these skills becomes much harder. When writing feels meaningful and pupils see themselves as capable writers, they are much more likely to persist and enjoy the process. This positive mindset supports their executive function, making it easier for them to tackle the complex demands of writing.
Building strong foundations early on makes a difference. Sequenced teaching, clear scaffolds and practical frameworks help pupils manage the demands of writing, reduce cognitive overload and build confidence (Ofsted, 2022). These supports remain valuable in secondary school, where pupils need to apply their writing skills for different purposes and across a range of subjects.
By providing real reasons to write such as sharing work with others or writing for a genuine audience, and by celebrating pupils’ achievements, you help build confidence and motivation (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988; Graham et al., 2012). Thoughtful teaching, supportive feedback and tasks that stretch their skills help pupils discover the full power of writing, both for learning and for pleasure.
Reflection prompts:
- How do your teachers break down the writing process into manageable steps, and what scaffolds are in place to help pupils succeed?
- What experiences do pupils have of writing for authentic audiences and purposes?
Action steps:
- Use scaffolding techniques and step-by-step frameworks to teach writing, making each element manageable.
- Hold discussions with subject leaders to strengthen the teaching of writing across curriculum areas.
This explainer is part of a series for teachers and school leaders on how to navigate the writing framework. Explore the other articles.
References
- Bandura, A., 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Macmillan.
- Bereiter, C., and Scardamalia, M. (1987b). The Psychology of Written Composition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- Berninger, V. W., Vaughan, K., Abbott, R. D., Begay, K. K., Coleman, K. B., Curtin, G., Hawkins, J. M., and Graham, S. (2002). Teaching spelling and composition alone and together: Implications for the simple view of writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), pp. 291–304.
- Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Csikszentmihalyi, I.S. eds., 1988. Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness. Cambridge university press.
- Department for Education (2014) ‘National curriculum in England: English programmes of study’. Available at: National curriculum in England: English programmes of study - GOV.UK
- Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) (2021) ‘Improving Literacy in Key Stage 1’. Available at: Improving Literacy in Key Stage 1 | EEF
- Graham, S., Bollinger, A., Olson, C.B., D'Aoust, C., MacArthur, C., McCutchen, D. and Olinghouse, N., 2012. Teaching Elementary School Students to Be Effective Writers: A Practice Guide. NCEE 2012-4058. What Works Clearinghouse.
- Horton, S.R., 1982. Thinking through writing. Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Kellogg, R.T., 1994. The psychology of writing. Oxford University Press.
- MacArthur, C.A. and Graham, S., 2016. Writing research from a cognitive perspective.
- National Literacy Trust (2025). ‘Children and young people’s writing in 2025’.
- Ofsted (2022). ‘Research review series: English’. Available at: Research review series: English - GOV.UK
- Tan, C.Y., Chuah, C.Q., Lee, S.T. and Tan, C.S., 2021. Being creative makes you happier: The positive effect of creativity on subjective well-being. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(14), p.7244.
